Menù principale
B016764 - GENERAL BIOLOGY
Main information
Teaching Language
Course Content
Suggested readings
Learning Objectives
Prerequisites
Teaching Methods
Further information
Type of Assessment
Course program
Sustainable Development Goals 2030
Academic Year 2023-24
Course year
First year - First Semester
Belonging Department
Experimantal and Clinical Medicine
Course Type
Single education field course
Scientific Area
BIO/13 - EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY
Credits
6
Teaching Hours
48
Teaching Term
18/09/2023 ⇒ 22/12/2023
Attendance required
No
Type of Evaluation
Final Grade
Course Content
show
Course program
show
Lectureship
- Last names A-K MAGHERINI FRANCESCA
- Last names L-Z GAMBERI TANIA
Teaching Language - Last names A-K
Italian
Teaching Language - Last names L-Z
Italian
Course Content - Last names A-K
Molecular Organization of Cells. Extracellular matrix. DNA, chromosomes, RNA, protein synthesis. Regulation of gene expression. Cell cycle, mitosis, meiosis. Genetic elements. Bioenergetics: cellular respiration and photosynthesis
Course Content - Last names L-Z
Molecular Organization of Cells. Extracellular matrix. DNA, chromosomes, RNA, protein synthesis. Regulation of gene expression. Cell cycle, mitosis, meiosis. Genetic elements. Bioenergetics: cellular respiration and photosynthesis
Suggested readings - Last names A-K (Search our library's catalogue)
Becker's "word of the cell"
Suggested readings - Last names L-Z (Search our library's catalogue)
Becker's "word of the cell"
Learning Objectives - Last names A-K
Knowledge and ability of understanding. The expected training objectives are: to provide basic knowledge about the major biological macromolecules and cell structure; to define the general principles of genetic information, cell division mechanisms and cellular homeostasis; to provide knowledge on the basic mechanisms of both animal and plant cellular metabolism.
Ability to apply knowledge and understanding. The topics developed during the lessons will have to provide students with the knowledge to describe the basic biological structures and processes of the living cell and living organisms using appropriate scientific terminology.
Ability to apply knowledge and understanding. The topics developed during the lessons will have to provide students with the knowledge to describe the basic biological structures and processes of the living cell and living organisms using appropriate scientific terminology.
Learning Objectives - Last names L-Z
Knowledge and ability of understanding. The expected training objectives are: to provide basic knowledge about the major biological macromolecules and cell structure; to define the general principles of genetic information, cell division mechanisms and cellular homeostasis; to provide knowledge on the basic mechanisms of both animal and plant cellular metabolism.
Ability to apply knowledge and understanding. The topics developed during the lessons will have to provide students with the knowledge to describe the basic biological structures and processes of the living cell and living organisms using appropriate scientific terminology.
Ability to apply knowledge and understanding. The topics developed during the lessons will have to provide students with the knowledge to describe the basic biological structures and processes of the living cell and living organisms using appropriate scientific terminology.
Prerequisites - Last names A-K
None
Prerequisites - Last names L-Z
none
Teaching Methods - Last names A-K
Frontal lessons
Lesson slides provided by the teacher and present on the e-learning platform of the university (access of students enrolled in the course through their own credentials).
Teaching aids: Video projector and PC
Lesson slides provided by the teacher and present on the e-learning platform of the university (access of students enrolled in the course through their own credentials).
Teaching aids: Video projector and PC
Teaching Methods - Last names L-Z
Frontal lessons
Lesson slides provided by the teacher and present on the e-learning platform of the university (access of students enrolled in the course through their own credentials).
Teaching aids: Video projector and PC
Lesson slides provided by the teacher and present on the e-learning platform of the university (access of students enrolled in the course through their own credentials).
Teaching aids: Video projector and PC
Further information - Last names A-K
Student Reception: Friday 2pm to 3pm by mail appointment
Further information - Last names L-Z
Student Reception: Friday 2.30pm to 4pm by mail appointment
Type of Assessment - Last names A-K
Oral exam with written access test.
Each exam consists of a written test (both cross test and open question) and an oral test. The written test will be done at the beginning of each exam and will only apply for the current exam and not for the subsequent sessions. The time available for the test will be 45 minutes after which the test will be immediately corrected and the result communicated to the students. The sufficiency of the written test is a prerequisite for access to the oral exam. The oral exam will start on the same day and will continue the following days according to the number of students. Students will be divided into groups (day: morning or afternoon) which will be communicated after the correction of the written test. The order will be based on the online registration list. A math mean values will be performed between written and oral test.
Each exam consists of a written test (both cross test and open question) and an oral test. The written test will be done at the beginning of each exam and will only apply for the current exam and not for the subsequent sessions. The time available for the test will be 45 minutes after which the test will be immediately corrected and the result communicated to the students. The sufficiency of the written test is a prerequisite for access to the oral exam. The oral exam will start on the same day and will continue the following days according to the number of students. Students will be divided into groups (day: morning or afternoon) which will be communicated after the correction of the written test. The order will be based on the online registration list. A math mean values will be performed between written and oral test.
Type of Assessment - Last names L-Z
Oral exam with written access test.
Each exam consists of a written test (both cross test and open question) and an oral test. The written test will be done at the beginning of each exam and will only apply for the current exam and not for the subsequent sessions. The time available for the test will be 45 minutes after which the test will be immediately corrected and the result communicated to the students. The sufficiency of the written test is a prerequisite for access to the oral exam. The oral exam will start on the same day and will continue the following days according to the number of students. Students will be divided into groups (day: morning or afternoon) which will be communicated after the correction of the written test. The order will be based on the online registration list. A math mean values will be performed between written and oral test.
Each exam consists of a written test (both cross test and open question) and an oral test. The written test will be done at the beginning of each exam and will only apply for the current exam and not for the subsequent sessions. The time available for the test will be 45 minutes after which the test will be immediately corrected and the result communicated to the students. The sufficiency of the written test is a prerequisite for access to the oral exam. The oral exam will start on the same day and will continue the following days according to the number of students. Students will be divided into groups (day: morning or afternoon) which will be communicated after the correction of the written test. The order will be based on the online registration list. A math mean values will be performed between written and oral test.
Course program - Last names A-K
1. INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY
Biology as an experimental science. Characteristics of living organisms. General about cell evolution. Theories on the Origin of Life
MOLECULES AND MACROMOLECULES
Noncovalent bonds (weak forces) and their role for the stability of biological macromolecules - Water: chemical characteristics and biological importance. Structure and function of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Structure of Nucleic Acids.
THE PROKARYOTIC AND EUCARIOTIC CELL
-Generality: differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes
-The prokaryotic cell: structure and components; cell wall in positive and negative Gram bacteria.
Eukaryotic cell structures:
- Mitochondria: structure and function - Mitochondrial compartments and mitochondrial genome - Endosymbiotic theory.
- Chloroplasts: structure and function - Differences with mitochondria - Main components: chlorophyll and photosystems
- The nucleus: nuclear membrane, nuclear porous complex, chromatin and chromosomes (euchromatin and heterochromatin, nucleosomes and higher levels of DNA packing), nucleolus.
- Ribosomes.
- Structure and function of other membrane cell systems: smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, peroxisomes, lysosomes.
-Cytoskeletal: microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments.
Vesicles trafficking: exocytosis and endocytosis. Pinocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis, phagocytosis. Coated vesicles in cellular transport processes. Lysosomes and cellular digestion.
CELL ADHESIONS AND EXTRACELLULAR STRUCTURES
Cell-cell junctions (gap junctions, adhesive junctions, tight junctions) and cell-matrix (emidesmosomes, focal adhesions). Notes on the extracellular matrix.
MEMBRANES: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
- Membrane structure and fluid mosaic model
-The transport mechanisms. Generality. Simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion. Protein carrier and protein channel. Osmosis. Direct active transport (Na+ / K+ ATPase pump) and indirect (Na+ / glucose symporter).
ENERGY AND METABOLISM
The fundamental principles of energy transformations
-Catabolism and anabolism, the ATP role. Enzymes and their functions.
-The catabolism of biological macromolecules: the role of glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation. Alcoholic and lactic fermentation.
-The photosynthesis: photosystems and light-dependent reactions. The role of Calvin's cycle.
-Carbon cycle
-
THE MOLECULAR BASES OF THE GENETIC MATERIAL AND THE DNA REPLICATION
-Description and significance of Griffith, Avery and Hershey and Chase experiments; the discovery of the double helix.
-The discovery of semi-conservative duplication: Meselson and Stahl experiment.
DNA replication: formation of the replication fork: helicases and stabilizing proteins; the synthesis of new filaments: the role of DNA polymerase, RNA primer, fragments of Okazaki
-DNA damage and repair
THE GENETIC CODE
-The flow of genetic information, central dogma of biology.
-Experiment of Beadle and Tatum
Deciphering the Genetic Code: Experiments of Crick and Brenner, Nirenberg and Matthei and Khorana
-The genetic code and its characteristics
THE TRANSCRIPTIONTranscription in prokaryotes and eukaryotes (RNA polymerase, promoter structures, transcription factors). The transcription products: (rRNA, tRNA, mRNA).
MATURATION OF RNA AND TRANSLATION
-Processing of ribosomal, transfer and messenger RNAs (CAP, polyadenylation, splicing).
-The translation into the prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Formation of aminoacyl-tRNA. Initiation, elongation and termination phases. Role of initiation, elongation and termination factors.
-MUTATIONS
-Point mutation.
- Changes in the number and structure of the chromosomes.
THE REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION
The regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes: lactose operon (regulation by lactose and cAMP). Tryptophan operon). About riboswitches
The regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes: the main levels of control:
-genomic level: DNA methylation, histone chemical modifications.
-transcriptional level: promoters, enhancers and their control by transcription factors. Some examples: steroid hormone receptors and phosphorylation-activated transcription factors (CREB).
Post-transcriptional level: alternative splicing, translation control. t microRNA
PROTEIN TARGETING AND SORTING
The role of chaperons in protein folding. Protein sorting in cellular compartments:
post-translational import into the nucleus and mitochondria: the role of signal peptides
-co-translational import into RE: role of SRP. Response to proteins not folded.
-glycosylation
- Protein degradation.
VIRUS
Structure and viral genomes
- Bacterial viruses: the lithic cycle and the lysogenic cycle
-Animal virus: different replicative cycles (reproduction of DNA, RNA, and retrovirus viruses)
CELL REPRODUCTION AND ORGANISMS
-Mitosis. The cell cycle and its regulation (notes on the role of cyclins)
-Sexual reproduction. Difference between somatic and germ cells
-Meiosis: general description, differences between meiosis and mitosis, recombination of genetic heritage (crossing over and independent assortment).
-The karyotype, the sex chromosomes and the inactivation of the X chromosome
-Gametogenesis and its hormonal regulation .
Biology as an experimental science. Characteristics of living organisms. General about cell evolution. Theories on the Origin of Life
MOLECULES AND MACROMOLECULES
Noncovalent bonds (weak forces) and their role for the stability of biological macromolecules - Water: chemical characteristics and biological importance. Structure and function of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Structure of Nucleic Acids.
THE PROKARYOTIC AND EUCARIOTIC CELL
-Generality: differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes
-The prokaryotic cell: structure and components; cell wall in positive and negative Gram bacteria.
Eukaryotic cell structures:
- Mitochondria: structure and function - Mitochondrial compartments and mitochondrial genome - Endosymbiotic theory.
- Chloroplasts: structure and function - Differences with mitochondria - Main components: chlorophyll and photosystems
- The nucleus: nuclear membrane, nuclear porous complex, chromatin and chromosomes (euchromatin and heterochromatin, nucleosomes and higher levels of DNA packing), nucleolus.
- Ribosomes.
- Structure and function of other membrane cell systems: smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, peroxisomes, lysosomes.
-Cytoskeletal: microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments.
Vesicles trafficking: exocytosis and endocytosis. Pinocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis, phagocytosis. Coated vesicles in cellular transport processes. Lysosomes and cellular digestion.
CELL ADHESIONS AND EXTRACELLULAR STRUCTURES
Cell-cell junctions (gap junctions, adhesive junctions, tight junctions) and cell-matrix (emidesmosomes, focal adhesions). Notes on the extracellular matrix.
MEMBRANES: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
- Membrane structure and fluid mosaic model
-The transport mechanisms. Generality. Simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion. Protein carrier and protein channel. Osmosis. Direct active transport (Na+ / K+ ATPase pump) and indirect (Na+ / glucose symporter).
ENERGY AND METABOLISM
The fundamental principles of energy transformations
-Catabolism and anabolism, the ATP role. Enzymes and their functions.
-The catabolism of biological macromolecules: the role of glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation. Alcoholic and lactic fermentation.
-The photosynthesis: photosystems and light-dependent reactions. The role of Calvin's cycle.
-Carbon cycle
-
THE MOLECULAR BASES OF THE GENETIC MATERIAL AND THE DNA REPLICATION
-Description and significance of Griffith, Avery and Hershey and Chase experiments; the discovery of the double helix.
-The discovery of semi-conservative duplication: Meselson and Stahl experiment.
DNA replication: formation of the replication fork: helicases and stabilizing proteins; the synthesis of new filaments: the role of DNA polymerase, RNA primer, fragments of Okazaki
-DNA damage and repair
THE GENETIC CODE
-The flow of genetic information, central dogma of biology.
-Experiment of Beadle and Tatum
Deciphering the Genetic Code: Experiments of Crick and Brenner, Nirenberg and Matthei and Khorana
-The genetic code and its characteristics
THE TRANSCRIPTIONTranscription in prokaryotes and eukaryotes (RNA polymerase, promoter structures, transcription factors). The transcription products: (rRNA, tRNA, mRNA).
MATURATION OF RNA AND TRANSLATION
-Processing of ribosomal, transfer and messenger RNAs (CAP, polyadenylation, splicing).
-The translation into the prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Formation of aminoacyl-tRNA. Initiation, elongation and termination phases. Role of initiation, elongation and termination factors.
-MUTATIONS
-Point mutation.
- Changes in the number and structure of the chromosomes.
THE REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION
The regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes: lactose operon (regulation by lactose and cAMP). Tryptophan operon). About riboswitches
The regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes: the main levels of control:
-genomic level: DNA methylation, histone chemical modifications.
-transcriptional level: promoters, enhancers and their control by transcription factors. Some examples: steroid hormone receptors and phosphorylation-activated transcription factors (CREB).
Post-transcriptional level: alternative splicing, translation control. t microRNA
PROTEIN TARGETING AND SORTING
The role of chaperons in protein folding. Protein sorting in cellular compartments:
post-translational import into the nucleus and mitochondria: the role of signal peptides
-co-translational import into RE: role of SRP. Response to proteins not folded.
-glycosylation
- Protein degradation.
VIRUS
Structure and viral genomes
- Bacterial viruses: the lithic cycle and the lysogenic cycle
-Animal virus: different replicative cycles (reproduction of DNA, RNA, and retrovirus viruses)
CELL REPRODUCTION AND ORGANISMS
-Mitosis. The cell cycle and its regulation (notes on the role of cyclins)
-Sexual reproduction. Difference between somatic and germ cells
-Meiosis: general description, differences between meiosis and mitosis, recombination of genetic heritage (crossing over and independent assortment).
-The karyotype, the sex chromosomes and the inactivation of the X chromosome
-Gametogenesis and its hormonal regulation .
Course program - Last names L-Z
1. INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY
Biology as an experimental science. Characteristics of living organisms. General about cell evolution. Theories on the Origin of Life
MOLECULES AND MACROMOLECULES
Noncovalent bonds (weak forces) and their role for the stability of biological macromolecules - Water: chemical characteristics and biological importance. Structure and function of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Structure of Nucleic Acids.
THE PROKARYOTIC AND EUCARIOTIC CELL
-Generality: differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes
-The prokaryotic cell: structure and components; cell wall in positive and negative Gram bacteria.
Eukaryotic cell structures:
- Mitochondria: structure and function - Mitochondrial compartments and mitochondrial genome - Endosymbiotic theory.
- Chloroplasts: structure and function - Differences with mitochondria - Main components: chlorophyll and photosystems
- The nucleus: nuclear membrane, nuclear porous complex, chromatin and chromosomes (euchromatin and heterochromatin, nucleosomes and higher levels of DNA packing), nucleolus.
- Ribosomes.
- Structure and function of other membrane cell systems: smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, peroxisomes, lysosomes.
-Cytoskeletal: microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments.
Vesicles trafficking: exocytosis and endocytosis. Pinocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis, phagocytosis. Coated vesicles in cellular transport processes. Lysosomes and cellular digestion.
CELL ADHESIONS AND EXTRACELLULAR STRUCTURES
Cell-cell junctions (gap junctions, adhesive junctions, tight junctions) and cell-matrix (emidesmosomes, focal adhesions). Notes on the extracellular matrix.
MEMBRANES: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
- Membrane structure and fluid mosaic model
-The transport mechanisms. Generality. Simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion. Protein carrier and protein channel. Osmosis. Direct active transport (Na+ / K+ ATPase pump) and indirect (Na+ / glucose symporter).
ENERGY AND METABOLISM
The fundamental principles of energy transformations
-Catabolism and anabolism, the ATP role. Enzymes and their functions.
-The catabolism of biological macromolecules: the role of glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation. Alcoholic and lactic fermentation.
-The photosynthesis: photosystems and light-dependent reactions. The role of Calvin's cycle.
-Carbon cycle
- THE MOLECULAR BASES OF THE GENETIC MATERIAL AND THE DNA REPLICATION
-Description and significance of Griffith, Avery and Hershey and Chase experiments; the discovery of the double helix.
-The discovery of semi-conservative duplication: Meselson and Stahl experiment.
DNA replication: formation of the replication fork: helicases and stabilizing proteins; the synthesis of new filaments: the role of DNA polymerase, RNA primer, fragments of Okazaki
-DNA damage and repair
THE GENETIC CODE
-The flow of genetic information, central dogma of biology.
-Experiment of Beadle and Tatum
Deciphering the Genetic Code: Experiments of Crick and Brenner, Nirenberg and Matthei and Khorana
-The genetic code and its characteristics
THE TRANSCRIPTIONTranscription in prokaryotes and eukaryotes (RNA polymerase, promoter structures, transcription factors). The transcription products: (rRNA, tRNA, mRNA).
MATURATION OF RNA AND TRANSLATION
-Processing of ribosomal, transfer and messenger RNAs (CAP, polyadenylation, splicing).
-The translation into the prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Formation of aminoacyl-tRNA. Initiation, elongation and termination phases. Role of initiation, elongation and termination factors.
-MUTATIONS
-Point mutation.
- Changes in the number and structure of the chromosomes.
THE REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION
The regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes: lactose operon (regulation by lactose and cAMP). Tryptophan operon ). About riboswitches
The regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes: the main levels of control:
-genomic level: DNA methylation, histone chemical modifications.
-transcriptional level: promoters, enhancers and their control by transcription factors. Some examples: steroid hormone receptors and phosphorylation-activated transcription factors (CREB).
Post-transcriptional level: alternative splicing, translation control. t microRNA
PROTEIN TARGETING AND SORTING
The role of chaperons in protein folding. Protein sorting in cellular compartments:
post-translational import into the nucleus and mitochondria: the role of signal peptides
-co-translational import into RE: role of SRP. Response to proteins not folded.
-glycosylation
- Protein degradation.
VIRUS
Structure and viral genomes
- Bacterial viruses: the lithic cycle and the lysogenic cycle
-Animal virus: different replicative cycles (reproduction of DNA, RNA, and retrovirus viruses)
CELL REPRODUCTION AND ORGANISMS
-Mitosis. The cell cycle and its regulation (notes on the role of cyclins)
-Sexual reproduction. Difference between somatic and germ cells
-Meiosis: general description, differences between meiosis and mitosis, recombination of genetic heritage (crossing over and independent assortment).
-The karyotype, the sex chromosomes and the inactivation of the X chromosome
-Gametogenesis and its hormonal regulation .
Biology as an experimental science. Characteristics of living organisms. General about cell evolution. Theories on the Origin of Life
MOLECULES AND MACROMOLECULES
Noncovalent bonds (weak forces) and their role for the stability of biological macromolecules - Water: chemical characteristics and biological importance. Structure and function of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Structure of Nucleic Acids.
THE PROKARYOTIC AND EUCARIOTIC CELL
-Generality: differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes
-The prokaryotic cell: structure and components; cell wall in positive and negative Gram bacteria.
Eukaryotic cell structures:
- Mitochondria: structure and function - Mitochondrial compartments and mitochondrial genome - Endosymbiotic theory.
- Chloroplasts: structure and function - Differences with mitochondria - Main components: chlorophyll and photosystems
- The nucleus: nuclear membrane, nuclear porous complex, chromatin and chromosomes (euchromatin and heterochromatin, nucleosomes and higher levels of DNA packing), nucleolus.
- Ribosomes.
- Structure and function of other membrane cell systems: smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, peroxisomes, lysosomes.
-Cytoskeletal: microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments.
Vesicles trafficking: exocytosis and endocytosis. Pinocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis, phagocytosis. Coated vesicles in cellular transport processes. Lysosomes and cellular digestion.
CELL ADHESIONS AND EXTRACELLULAR STRUCTURES
Cell-cell junctions (gap junctions, adhesive junctions, tight junctions) and cell-matrix (emidesmosomes, focal adhesions). Notes on the extracellular matrix.
MEMBRANES: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
- Membrane structure and fluid mosaic model
-The transport mechanisms. Generality. Simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion. Protein carrier and protein channel. Osmosis. Direct active transport (Na+ / K+ ATPase pump) and indirect (Na+ / glucose symporter).
ENERGY AND METABOLISM
The fundamental principles of energy transformations
-Catabolism and anabolism, the ATP role. Enzymes and their functions.
-The catabolism of biological macromolecules: the role of glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation. Alcoholic and lactic fermentation.
-The photosynthesis: photosystems and light-dependent reactions. The role of Calvin's cycle.
-Carbon cycle
- THE MOLECULAR BASES OF THE GENETIC MATERIAL AND THE DNA REPLICATION
-Description and significance of Griffith, Avery and Hershey and Chase experiments; the discovery of the double helix.
-The discovery of semi-conservative duplication: Meselson and Stahl experiment.
DNA replication: formation of the replication fork: helicases and stabilizing proteins; the synthesis of new filaments: the role of DNA polymerase, RNA primer, fragments of Okazaki
-DNA damage and repair
THE GENETIC CODE
-The flow of genetic information, central dogma of biology.
-Experiment of Beadle and Tatum
Deciphering the Genetic Code: Experiments of Crick and Brenner, Nirenberg and Matthei and Khorana
-The genetic code and its characteristics
THE TRANSCRIPTIONTranscription in prokaryotes and eukaryotes (RNA polymerase, promoter structures, transcription factors). The transcription products: (rRNA, tRNA, mRNA).
MATURATION OF RNA AND TRANSLATION
-Processing of ribosomal, transfer and messenger RNAs (CAP, polyadenylation, splicing).
-The translation into the prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Formation of aminoacyl-tRNA. Initiation, elongation and termination phases. Role of initiation, elongation and termination factors.
-MUTATIONS
-Point mutation.
- Changes in the number and structure of the chromosomes.
THE REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION
The regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes: lactose operon (regulation by lactose and cAMP). Tryptophan operon ). About riboswitches
The regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes: the main levels of control:
-genomic level: DNA methylation, histone chemical modifications.
-transcriptional level: promoters, enhancers and their control by transcription factors. Some examples: steroid hormone receptors and phosphorylation-activated transcription factors (CREB).
Post-transcriptional level: alternative splicing, translation control. t microRNA
PROTEIN TARGETING AND SORTING
The role of chaperons in protein folding. Protein sorting in cellular compartments:
post-translational import into the nucleus and mitochondria: the role of signal peptides
-co-translational import into RE: role of SRP. Response to proteins not folded.
-glycosylation
- Protein degradation.
VIRUS
Structure and viral genomes
- Bacterial viruses: the lithic cycle and the lysogenic cycle
-Animal virus: different replicative cycles (reproduction of DNA, RNA, and retrovirus viruses)
CELL REPRODUCTION AND ORGANISMS
-Mitosis. The cell cycle and its regulation (notes on the role of cyclins)
-Sexual reproduction. Difference between somatic and germ cells
-Meiosis: general description, differences between meiosis and mitosis, recombination of genetic heritage (crossing over and independent assortment).
-The karyotype, the sex chromosomes and the inactivation of the X chromosome
-Gametogenesis and its hormonal regulation .
Sustainable Development Goals 2030 - Last names A-K
Sustainable Development Goals 2030 - Last names L-Z
no