Menù principale
B016764 - GENERAL BIOLOGY
Main information
Teaching Language
Course Content
Suggested readings
Learning Objectives
Prerequisites
Teaching Methods
Further information
Type of Assessment
Course program
Academic Year 2021-22
Course year
First year - First Semester
Belonging Department
Experimantal and Clinical Medicine
Course Type
Single education field course
Scientific Area
BIO/13 - EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY
Credits
6
Teaching Hours
48
Teaching Term
27/09/2021 ⇒ 15/01/2022
Attendance required
No
Type of Evaluation
Final Grade
Course Content
show
Course program
show
Lectureship
- Last names A-K MAGHERINI FRANCESCA
- Last names L-Z GAMBERI TANIA
Teaching Language - Last names A-K
Italian
Teaching Language - Last names L-Z
Italian
Course Content - Last names A-K
Molecular Organization of Cells. Extracellular matrix. DNA, chromosomes, RNA, protein synthesis. Regulation of gene expression. Cell cycle, mitosis, meiosis. Genetic elements. Bioenergetics: cellular respiration and photosynthesis
Course Content - Last names L-Z
Molecular Organization of Cells. Extracellular matrix. DNA, chromosomes, RNA, protein synthesis. Regulation of gene expression. Cell cycle, mitosis, meiosis. Genetic elements. Bioenergetics: cellular respiration and photosynthesis
Suggested readings - Last names A-K (Search our library's catalogue)
Becker's "word of the cell"
Suggested readings - Last names L-Z (Search our library's catalogue)
• Campbell “Biologia e Genetica” Ed Pearson
• Becker “Il mondo della cellula” Ed. Pearson
• De Leo, Fasano, Ginelli “Biologia a Genetica” Ed. EdiSES
• Solomon, Berg, Martin “Biologia” Ed. EdiSES
• Daniel L. Hartl, James R. Morris, Andrew H. Knoll. “Biologia. Come funziona la cellula” Ed. Zanichelli
• David Sadava, David M. Hillis, H. Craig Heller. “Elementi di biologia e genetica” Ed. Zanichelli
• Becker “Il mondo della cellula” Ed. Pearson
• De Leo, Fasano, Ginelli “Biologia a Genetica” Ed. EdiSES
• Solomon, Berg, Martin “Biologia” Ed. EdiSES
• Daniel L. Hartl, James R. Morris, Andrew H. Knoll. “Biologia. Come funziona la cellula” Ed. Zanichelli
• David Sadava, David M. Hillis, H. Craig Heller. “Elementi di biologia e genetica” Ed. Zanichelli
Learning Objectives - Last names A-K
Knowledge and ability of understanding. The expected training objectives are: to provide basic knowledge about the major biological macromolecules and cell structure; to define the general principles of genetic information, cell division mechanisms and cellular homeostasis; to provide knowledge on the basic mechanisms of both animal and plant cellular metabolism.
Ability to apply knowledge and understanding. The topics developed during the lessons will have to provide students with the knowledge to describe the basic biological structures and processes of the living cell and living organisms using appropriate scientific terminology.
Ability to apply knowledge and understanding. The topics developed during the lessons will have to provide students with the knowledge to describe the basic biological structures and processes of the living cell and living organisms using appropriate scientific terminology.
Learning Objectives - Last names L-Z
Knowledge and ability of understanding. The expected training objectives are: to provide basic knowledge about the major biological macromolecules and cell structure; to define the general principles of genetic information, cell division mechanisms and cellular homeostasis; to provide knowledge on the basic mechanisms of both animal and plant cellular metabolism.
Ability to apply knowledge and understanding. The topics developed during the lessons will have to provide students with the knowledge to describe the basic biological structures and processes of the living cell and living organisms using appropriate scientific terminology.
Ability to apply knowledge and understanding. The topics developed during the lessons will have to provide students with the knowledge to describe the basic biological structures and processes of the living cell and living organisms using appropriate scientific terminology.
Prerequisites - Last names A-K
None
Prerequisites - Last names L-Z
none
Teaching Methods - Last names A-K
Frontal lessons
Lesson slides provided by the teacher and present on the e-learning platform of the university (access of students enrolled in the course through their own credentials).
Teaching aids: Video projector and PC
Lesson slides provided by the teacher and present on the e-learning platform of the university (access of students enrolled in the course through their own credentials).
Teaching aids: Video projector and PC
Teaching Methods - Last names L-Z
Frontal lessons
Lesson slides provided by the teacher and present on the e-learning platform of the university (access of students enrolled in the course through their own credentials).
Teaching aids: Video projector and PC
Lesson slides provided by the teacher and present on the e-learning platform of the university (access of students enrolled in the course through their own credentials).
Teaching aids: Video projector and PC
Further information - Last names A-K
Student Reception: Monday 11am to 13am by mail appointment
Further information - Last names L-Z
Student Reception: Monday 14 pm to 16 pm by mail appointment
Type of Assessment - Last names A-K
Oral examination with written access test.
Each appeal of examination consists of a written test (both cross test and open question). The written test will be done at the beginning of each appeal and will only apply for that day's appeal and not for the subsequent appeal sessions. The time available for the test will be 30 minutes after which the test will be immediately corrected and the result communicated to the students. The sufficiency of the written test is a prerequisite for access to the oral examination. The oral examination will start on the same day and will continue the following days according to the number of students. Students will be divided into groups (day: morning or afternoon) which will be communicated after the correction of the written test. The order will be based on the online registration list. A math mean values will be performed between written and oral test.
Each appeal of examination consists of a written test (both cross test and open question). The written test will be done at the beginning of each appeal and will only apply for that day's appeal and not for the subsequent appeal sessions. The time available for the test will be 30 minutes after which the test will be immediately corrected and the result communicated to the students. The sufficiency of the written test is a prerequisite for access to the oral examination. The oral examination will start on the same day and will continue the following days according to the number of students. Students will be divided into groups (day: morning or afternoon) which will be communicated after the correction of the written test. The order will be based on the online registration list. A math mean values will be performed between written and oral test.
Type of Assessment - Last names L-Z
Oral examination with written access test.
Each appeal of examination consists of a written test (both cross test and open question). The written test will be done at the beginning of each appeal and will only apply for that day's appeal and not for the subsequent appeal sessions. The time available for the test will be 30 minutes after which the test will be immediately corrected and the result communicated to the students. The sufficiency of the written test is a prerequisite for access to the oral examination. The oral examination will start on the same day and will continue the following days according to the number of students. Students will be divided into groups (day: morning or afternoon) which will be communicated after the correction of the written test. The order will be based on the online registration list. A math mean values will be performed between written and oral test.
Each appeal of examination consists of a written test (both cross test and open question). The written test will be done at the beginning of each appeal and will only apply for that day's appeal and not for the subsequent appeal sessions. The time available for the test will be 30 minutes after which the test will be immediately corrected and the result communicated to the students. The sufficiency of the written test is a prerequisite for access to the oral examination. The oral examination will start on the same day and will continue the following days according to the number of students. Students will be divided into groups (day: morning or afternoon) which will be communicated after the correction of the written test. The order will be based on the online registration list. A math mean values will be performed between written and oral test.
Course program - Last names A-K
1. INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY
Biology as an experimental science. Characteristics of living organisms. General about cell evolution. Theories on the Origin of Life
MOLECULES AND MACROMOLECULES
Noncovalent bonds (weak forces) and their role for the stability of biological macromolecules - Water: chemical characteristics and biological importance. Structure and function of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Structure of Nucleic Acids.
THE PROKARYOTIC AND EUCARIOTIC CELL
-Generality: differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes
-The prokaryotic cell: structure and components; cell wall in positive and negative grams.
Eukaryotic cell structures:
- Mitochondria: structure and function - Mitochondrial compartments: their main components - Mitochondrial genome - Endosymbiotic theory.
- Chloroplasts: structure and function - Differences with mitochondria - Main components: chlorophyll and photosystems
- The nucleus: nuclear casing, nuclear porous complex, chromatin and chromosomes (euchromatin and heterochromatin, nucleosomes and higher levels of DNA packing), nucleolus.
- Ribosomes.
- Structure and function of other membrane cell systems: smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, peroxisomes, lysosomes.
-Cytoskeletal: microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments.
2. CELL ADHESIONS AND EXTRACELLULAR STRUCTURES
Cell-cell junctions (gap junctions, adhesive junctions, tight junctions) and cell-matrix (emidesmosomes, focal adhesions). Notes on the extracellular matrix.
MEMBRANES: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
- Membrane structure and fluid mosaic model
-The transport mechanisms. Generality. Simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion. Protein carrier and protein channel. Osmosis. Direct active transport (Na+ / K+ ATPase pump) and indirect (Na+ / glucose symporter).
3. ENERGY AND METABOLISM
The fundamental principles of energy transformations
-Catabolism and anabolism, the role of ATP. Enzymes and their functions.
-The catabolism of biological macromolecules: the role of glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation. Alcoholic and lactic fermentation.
-The photosynthesis: photosystems and light reactions. The role of Calvin's cycle.
-Carbon cycle
-Nitrogen cycle
4. THE MOLECULAR BASES OF THE GENETIC MATERIAL AND THE DNA REPLICATION
-Description and significance of Griffith and Hershey and Chase experiments; the discovery of the double helix.
-The discovery of semi-conservative duplication: Meselson and Stahl experiment
DNA replication: formation of the replication force: helicases and stabilizing proteins; the synthesis of new filaments: the role of DNA polymerase, RNA primer, fragments of Okazaki
-DNA damage and repair
GENETIC CODE AND TRANSCRIPTION
-The flow of genetic information, central dogma of biology.
-Experiment of Beadle and Tatum
-Experiment of Nirenberg and Matthei
-The genetic code and its characteristics
- Transcription in prokaryotes and eukaryotes (RNA polymerase, promoter structure, transcription factors). The transcription products: (rRNA, tRNA, mRNA).
MATURATION OF RNA AND TRANSLATION
-Processing of ribosomal, transfer and messenger RNAs (CAP, polyadenylation, splicing).
-The translation into the prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Formation of aminoacyl-tRNA. Beginning, lengthening and termination phase. Role of protein initiation and termination factors.
-MUTATIONS
-Based-pair modifications.
- Changes in the number and structure of the chromosomes.
5. THE REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION
The regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes: lactose operon (regulation by lactose and cAMP). Tryptophan operon (regulation and attenuation). About riboswitches
The regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes: the main levels of control:
-genomics: DNA methylation, histone chemical modifications.
-transcription: promoters, enhancers and their control by transcription factors. Some examples: steroid hormone receptors and phosphorylation-activated transcription factors (CREB). About homemade genes.
Post-transcription: alternative splicing, translation control. About microRNA
PROTEIN TARGETING AND SORTING
The role of chaperons in the folding of proteins
Protein sorting in cellular districts:
post-translational import into the nucleus and mitochondria: the role of signal sequences and generality on import mechanisms
-co-translational import into RE: role of SRP. Response to proteins not folded.
-glycosylation
- vesicular transport: generality, recovery of proteins resident in the RE, targeting to the lysosomes.
-the endocytic pathway: phagocytosis, endocytosis (or pinocytosis) endocytosis mediated by the receptor (eg receptor for LDL)
- Protein degradation.
6. VIRUS
Structure and types of viral genomes
- Bacterial viruses: the lithic cycle and the lysogenic cycle
-Virus animals: different replicative cycles (reproduction of DNA, RNA, and retrovirus viruses)
7. CELL REPRODUCTION AND ORGANISMS
-Mitosis. The cell cycle and its regulation (notes on the role of cyclins)
-Sexual reproduction. Difference between somatic and germ cells
-Meiosis: general description, differences between meiosis and mitosis, recombination of genetic heritage (crossing over and independent assortment).
-Gametogenesis. Fertilization
Cellular development and differentiation.
Biology as an experimental science. Characteristics of living organisms. General about cell evolution. Theories on the Origin of Life
MOLECULES AND MACROMOLECULES
Noncovalent bonds (weak forces) and their role for the stability of biological macromolecules - Water: chemical characteristics and biological importance. Structure and function of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Structure of Nucleic Acids.
THE PROKARYOTIC AND EUCARIOTIC CELL
-Generality: differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes
-The prokaryotic cell: structure and components; cell wall in positive and negative grams.
Eukaryotic cell structures:
- Mitochondria: structure and function - Mitochondrial compartments: their main components - Mitochondrial genome - Endosymbiotic theory.
- Chloroplasts: structure and function - Differences with mitochondria - Main components: chlorophyll and photosystems
- The nucleus: nuclear casing, nuclear porous complex, chromatin and chromosomes (euchromatin and heterochromatin, nucleosomes and higher levels of DNA packing), nucleolus.
- Ribosomes.
- Structure and function of other membrane cell systems: smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, peroxisomes, lysosomes.
-Cytoskeletal: microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments.
2. CELL ADHESIONS AND EXTRACELLULAR STRUCTURES
Cell-cell junctions (gap junctions, adhesive junctions, tight junctions) and cell-matrix (emidesmosomes, focal adhesions). Notes on the extracellular matrix.
MEMBRANES: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
- Membrane structure and fluid mosaic model
-The transport mechanisms. Generality. Simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion. Protein carrier and protein channel. Osmosis. Direct active transport (Na+ / K+ ATPase pump) and indirect (Na+ / glucose symporter).
3. ENERGY AND METABOLISM
The fundamental principles of energy transformations
-Catabolism and anabolism, the role of ATP. Enzymes and their functions.
-The catabolism of biological macromolecules: the role of glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation. Alcoholic and lactic fermentation.
-The photosynthesis: photosystems and light reactions. The role of Calvin's cycle.
-Carbon cycle
-Nitrogen cycle
4. THE MOLECULAR BASES OF THE GENETIC MATERIAL AND THE DNA REPLICATION
-Description and significance of Griffith and Hershey and Chase experiments; the discovery of the double helix.
-The discovery of semi-conservative duplication: Meselson and Stahl experiment
DNA replication: formation of the replication force: helicases and stabilizing proteins; the synthesis of new filaments: the role of DNA polymerase, RNA primer, fragments of Okazaki
-DNA damage and repair
GENETIC CODE AND TRANSCRIPTION
-The flow of genetic information, central dogma of biology.
-Experiment of Beadle and Tatum
-Experiment of Nirenberg and Matthei
-The genetic code and its characteristics
- Transcription in prokaryotes and eukaryotes (RNA polymerase, promoter structure, transcription factors). The transcription products: (rRNA, tRNA, mRNA).
MATURATION OF RNA AND TRANSLATION
-Processing of ribosomal, transfer and messenger RNAs (CAP, polyadenylation, splicing).
-The translation into the prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Formation of aminoacyl-tRNA. Beginning, lengthening and termination phase. Role of protein initiation and termination factors.
-MUTATIONS
-Based-pair modifications.
- Changes in the number and structure of the chromosomes.
5. THE REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION
The regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes: lactose operon (regulation by lactose and cAMP). Tryptophan operon (regulation and attenuation). About riboswitches
The regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes: the main levels of control:
-genomics: DNA methylation, histone chemical modifications.
-transcription: promoters, enhancers and their control by transcription factors. Some examples: steroid hormone receptors and phosphorylation-activated transcription factors (CREB). About homemade genes.
Post-transcription: alternative splicing, translation control. About microRNA
PROTEIN TARGETING AND SORTING
The role of chaperons in the folding of proteins
Protein sorting in cellular districts:
post-translational import into the nucleus and mitochondria: the role of signal sequences and generality on import mechanisms
-co-translational import into RE: role of SRP. Response to proteins not folded.
-glycosylation
- vesicular transport: generality, recovery of proteins resident in the RE, targeting to the lysosomes.
-the endocytic pathway: phagocytosis, endocytosis (or pinocytosis) endocytosis mediated by the receptor (eg receptor for LDL)
- Protein degradation.
6. VIRUS
Structure and types of viral genomes
- Bacterial viruses: the lithic cycle and the lysogenic cycle
-Virus animals: different replicative cycles (reproduction of DNA, RNA, and retrovirus viruses)
7. CELL REPRODUCTION AND ORGANISMS
-Mitosis. The cell cycle and its regulation (notes on the role of cyclins)
-Sexual reproduction. Difference between somatic and germ cells
-Meiosis: general description, differences between meiosis and mitosis, recombination of genetic heritage (crossing over and independent assortment).
-Gametogenesis. Fertilization
Cellular development and differentiation.
Course program - Last names L-Z
1. INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY
Biology as an experimental science. Characteristics of living organisms. General about cell evolution. Theories on the Origin of Life
MOLECULES AND MACROMOLECULES
Noncovalent bonds (weak forces) and their role for the stability of biological macromolecules - Water: chemical characteristics and biological importance. Structure and function of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Structure of Nucleic Acids.
THE PROKARYOTIC AND EUCARIOTIC CELL
-Generality: differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes
-The prokaryotic cell: structure and components; cell wall in positive and negative grams.
Eukaryotic cell structures:
- Mitochondria: structure and function - Mitochondrial compartments: their main components - Mitochondrial genome - Endosymbiotic theory.
- Chloroplasts: structure and function - Differences with mitochondria - Main components: chlorophyll and photosystems
- The nucleus: nuclear casing, nuclear porous complex, chromatin and chromosomes (euchromatin and heterochromatin, nucleosomes and higher levels of DNA packing), nucleolus.
- Ribosomes.
- Structure and function of other membrane cell systems: smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, peroxisomes, lysosomes.
-Cytoskeletal: microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments.
2. CELL ADHESIONS AND EXTRACELLULAR STRUCTURES
Cell-cell junctions (gap junctions, adhesive junctions, tight junctions) and cell-matrix (emidesmosomes, focal adhesions). Notes on the extracellular matrix.
MEMBRANES: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
- Membrane structure and fluid mosaic model
-The transport mechanisms. Generality. Simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion. Protein carrier and protein channel. Osmosis. Direct active transport (Na+ / K+ ATPase pump) and indirect (Na+ / glucose symporter).
3. ENERGY AND METABOLISM
The fundamental principles of energy transformations
-Catabolism and anabolism, the role of ATP. Enzymes and their functions.
-The catabolism of biological macromolecules: the role of glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation. Alcoholic and lactic fermentation.
-The photosynthesis: photosystems and light reactions. The role of Calvin's cycle.
-Carbon cycle
-Nitrogen cycle
4. THE MOLECULAR BASES OF THE GENETIC MATERIAL AND THE DNA REPLICATION
-Description and significance of Griffith and Hershey and Chase experiments; the discovery of the double helix.
-The discovery of semi-conservative duplication: Meselson and Stahl experiment
DNA replication: formation of the replication force: helicases and stabilizing proteins; the synthesis of new filaments: the role of DNA polymerase, RNA primer, fragments of Okazaki
-DNA damage and repair
GENETIC CODE AND TRANSCRIPTION
-The flow of genetic information, central dogma of biology.
-Experiment of Beadle and Tatum
-Experiment of Nirenberg and Matthei
-The genetic code and its characteristics
- Transcription in prokaryotes and eukaryotes (RNA polymerase, promoter structure, transcription factors). The transcription products: (rRNA, tRNA, mRNA).
MATURATION OF RNA AND TRANSLATION
-Processing of ribosomal, transfer and messenger RNAs (CAP, polyadenylation, splicing).
-The translation into the prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Formation of aminoacyl-tRNA. Beginning, lengthening and termination phase. Role of protein initiation and termination factors.
-MUTATIONS
-Based-pair modifications.
- Changes in the number and structure of the chromosomes.
5. THE REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION
The regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes: lactose operon (regulation by lactose and cAMP). Tryptophan operon (regulation and attenuation). About riboswitches
The regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes: the main levels of control:
-genomics: DNA methylation, histone chemical modifications.
-transcription: promoters, enhancers and their control by transcription factors. Some examples: steroid hormone receptors and phosphorylation-activated transcription factors (CREB). About homemade genes.
Post-transcription: alternative splicing, translation control. About microRNA
PROTEIN TARGETING AND SORTING
The role of chaperons in the folding of proteins
Protein sorting in cellular districts:
post-translational import into the nucleus and mitochondria: the role of signal sequences and generality on import mechanisms
-co-translational import into RE: role of SRP. Response to proteins not folded.
-glycosylation
- vesicular transport: generality, recovery of proteins resident in the RE, targeting to the lysosomes.
-the endocytic pathway: phagocytosis, endocytosis (or pinocytosis) endocytosis mediated by the receptor (eg receptor for LDL)
- Protein degradation.
6. VIRUS
Structure and types of viral genomes
- Bacterial viruses: the lithic cycle and the lysogenic cycle
-Virus animals: different replicative cycles (reproduction of DNA, RNA, and retrovirus viruses)
7. CELL REPRODUCTION AND ORGANISMS
-Mitosis. The cell cycle and its regulation (notes on the role of cyclins)
-Sexual reproduction. Difference between somatic and germ cells
-Meiosis: general description, differences between meiosis and mitosis, recombination of genetic heritage (crossing over and independent assortment).
-Gametogenesis. Fertilization
Cellular development and differentiation.
Biology as an experimental science. Characteristics of living organisms. General about cell evolution. Theories on the Origin of Life
MOLECULES AND MACROMOLECULES
Noncovalent bonds (weak forces) and their role for the stability of biological macromolecules - Water: chemical characteristics and biological importance. Structure and function of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Structure of Nucleic Acids.
THE PROKARYOTIC AND EUCARIOTIC CELL
-Generality: differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes
-The prokaryotic cell: structure and components; cell wall in positive and negative grams.
Eukaryotic cell structures:
- Mitochondria: structure and function - Mitochondrial compartments: their main components - Mitochondrial genome - Endosymbiotic theory.
- Chloroplasts: structure and function - Differences with mitochondria - Main components: chlorophyll and photosystems
- The nucleus: nuclear casing, nuclear porous complex, chromatin and chromosomes (euchromatin and heterochromatin, nucleosomes and higher levels of DNA packing), nucleolus.
- Ribosomes.
- Structure and function of other membrane cell systems: smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, peroxisomes, lysosomes.
-Cytoskeletal: microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments.
2. CELL ADHESIONS AND EXTRACELLULAR STRUCTURES
Cell-cell junctions (gap junctions, adhesive junctions, tight junctions) and cell-matrix (emidesmosomes, focal adhesions). Notes on the extracellular matrix.
MEMBRANES: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
- Membrane structure and fluid mosaic model
-The transport mechanisms. Generality. Simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion. Protein carrier and protein channel. Osmosis. Direct active transport (Na+ / K+ ATPase pump) and indirect (Na+ / glucose symporter).
3. ENERGY AND METABOLISM
The fundamental principles of energy transformations
-Catabolism and anabolism, the role of ATP. Enzymes and their functions.
-The catabolism of biological macromolecules: the role of glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation. Alcoholic and lactic fermentation.
-The photosynthesis: photosystems and light reactions. The role of Calvin's cycle.
-Carbon cycle
-Nitrogen cycle
4. THE MOLECULAR BASES OF THE GENETIC MATERIAL AND THE DNA REPLICATION
-Description and significance of Griffith and Hershey and Chase experiments; the discovery of the double helix.
-The discovery of semi-conservative duplication: Meselson and Stahl experiment
DNA replication: formation of the replication force: helicases and stabilizing proteins; the synthesis of new filaments: the role of DNA polymerase, RNA primer, fragments of Okazaki
-DNA damage and repair
GENETIC CODE AND TRANSCRIPTION
-The flow of genetic information, central dogma of biology.
-Experiment of Beadle and Tatum
-Experiment of Nirenberg and Matthei
-The genetic code and its characteristics
- Transcription in prokaryotes and eukaryotes (RNA polymerase, promoter structure, transcription factors). The transcription products: (rRNA, tRNA, mRNA).
MATURATION OF RNA AND TRANSLATION
-Processing of ribosomal, transfer and messenger RNAs (CAP, polyadenylation, splicing).
-The translation into the prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Formation of aminoacyl-tRNA. Beginning, lengthening and termination phase. Role of protein initiation and termination factors.
-MUTATIONS
-Based-pair modifications.
- Changes in the number and structure of the chromosomes.
5. THE REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION
The regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes: lactose operon (regulation by lactose and cAMP). Tryptophan operon (regulation and attenuation). About riboswitches
The regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes: the main levels of control:
-genomics: DNA methylation, histone chemical modifications.
-transcription: promoters, enhancers and their control by transcription factors. Some examples: steroid hormone receptors and phosphorylation-activated transcription factors (CREB). About homemade genes.
Post-transcription: alternative splicing, translation control. About microRNA
PROTEIN TARGETING AND SORTING
The role of chaperons in the folding of proteins
Protein sorting in cellular districts:
post-translational import into the nucleus and mitochondria: the role of signal sequences and generality on import mechanisms
-co-translational import into RE: role of SRP. Response to proteins not folded.
-glycosylation
- vesicular transport: generality, recovery of proteins resident in the RE, targeting to the lysosomes.
-the endocytic pathway: phagocytosis, endocytosis (or pinocytosis) endocytosis mediated by the receptor (eg receptor for LDL)
- Protein degradation.
6. VIRUS
Structure and types of viral genomes
- Bacterial viruses: the lithic cycle and the lysogenic cycle
-Virus animals: different replicative cycles (reproduction of DNA, RNA, and retrovirus viruses)
7. CELL REPRODUCTION AND ORGANISMS
-Mitosis. The cell cycle and its regulation (notes on the role of cyclins)
-Sexual reproduction. Difference between somatic and germ cells
-Meiosis: general description, differences between meiosis and mitosis, recombination of genetic heritage (crossing over and independent assortment).
-Gametogenesis. Fertilization
Cellular development and differentiation.